Free BHIC-109 Solved Assignment | July 2025, January 2026 | BAHIH | English & Hindi Medium | IGNOU

🏛️ Historical Context and Origins

The rise of Nayaka polities in sixteenth and seventeenth-century South India was directly tied to the decline of the Vijayanagara Empire following the catastrophic Battle of Talikota in 1565. Originally, the Nayaks were military governors appointed by Vijayanagara rulers like Krishnadevaraya to administer distant provinces, collect revenue, and maintain military contingents. These governors, often Telugu-speaking Balija warriors from present-day Andhra Pradesh, were strategically positioned in frontier regions to enforce imperial authority. However, the defeat at Talikota—which resulted in the sacking of Vijayanagara’s capital, Hampi—severely weakened central authority, creating a power vacuum that enabled these governors to assert autonomy. Diminished imperial resources, disrupted communication networks, and ongoing threats from Deccan Sultanates further accelerated their transition into independent rulers.

🗺️ Major Polities and Their Foundations

Several key Nayaka kingdoms emerged, each with distinct regional characteristics. The Madurai Nayaks, founded by Viswanatha Nayak (1529–1563), consolidated control over southern Tamil Nadu. Viswanatha’s minister, Ariyanatha Mudaliar, implemented the palayam system, dividing the kingdom into 72 military districts governed by polygar chieftains, which enhanced administrative efficiency and local defense. The Thanjavur Nayaks, established by Sevappa Nayak, ruled the fertile Kaveri delta and became renowned patrons of Tamil literature, music, and dance. Meanwhile, the Gingee Nayaks in northern Tamil Nadu leveraged their formidable fortress to maintain independence amid regional conflicts. In Karnataka, the Keladi Nayaks (or Ikkeri Nayaks) resisted Bijapur Sultanate incursions and developed maritime trade links, while the Chitradurga Nayaks fortified their position in eastern Karnataka through strategic alliances.

⚖️ Administrative and Military Innovations

The Nayakas retained Vijayanagara administrative structures while introducing innovations tailored to local needs. They upheld the ayagar system for revenue collection and village governance but expanded land grants (nayankara) to military commanders and temples to secure loyalty. Militarily, they combined standing armies with feudal levies and invested heavily in fortifications, as seen in Gingee’s impregnable triple-fort complex. This hybrid model allowed them to navigate external pressures from Deccan Sultanates, Marathas, and emerging European powers.

🎭 Cultural Contributions and Legacy

Nayaka rule fostered a significant cultural efflorescence, particularly in temple architecture and the arts. They expanded iconic temple complexes like Madurai’s Meenakshi Temple and Srirangam’s Ranganathaswamy Temple, constructing towering gopurams (gateway towers) and ornate mandapas (pillared halls). Thanjavur emerged as a center for Carnatic music, Bharatanatyam dance, and literature, with Nayaka patronage supporting works in Tamil, Telugu, and Sanskrit. This cultural investment served to legitimize their rule by framing them as righteous (dharmic) successors to Vijayanagara traditions.

⚠️ Challenges and Decline

Internal and external pressures eventually led to their decline. Succession disputes, rebellions by polygars, and conflicts between Nayaka dynasties (e.g., the Battle of Toppur in 1616) weakened their cohesion. By the late seventeenth century, they faced escalating threats from the Mughals, Marathas, and European colonial powers. Thanjavur fell to the Marathas in 1673, while Madurai was annexed by the Carnatic Nawabs in 1736. Despite their political fragmentation, the Nayakas left an enduring legacy through their administrative models, architectural achievements, and cultural patronage, which continued to influence South Indian society long after their rule.

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The Zabti system, also known as the Dahsala system, was a method of land revenue administration introduced by Emperor Akbar’s finance minister, Raja Todar Mal, in the late 16th century. It represented a significant administrative innovation in the Mughal Empire, aiming to standardize revenue collection, enhance efficiency, and ensure fairness for both the state and the agrarian population. This system replaced earlier, less systematic methods and became the cornerstone of Mughal fiscal policy, reflecting Akbar’s vision of a centralized and prosperous empire.

The core principle of the Zabti system was the fixation of revenue demand based on a careful assessment of land productivity and prevailing prices. The term "Dahsala" literally translates to "ten-year," indicating that the revenue rates were determined by calculating the average produce and average prices over a ten-year period. This approach aimed to mitigate the impact of annual fluctuations in harvests and market conditions, providing stability to both the state and the cultivators.

The process involved several meticulous steps. First, land was classified into four categories based on its fertility and cultivation status: Polaj (annually cultivated), Parauti (fallow land temporarily uncultivated), Chachar (uncultivated for three to four years), and Banjar (barren or uncultivated for over five years). Revenue was assessed primarily on Polaj land. Second, the state measured land using standardized units and ropes, ensuring accuracy in determining the area under cultivation. Third, crop yields were estimated through sample surveys, and the revenue demand was calculated as one-third of the average produce, which could be paid in cash or kind, though cash payments became increasingly common. This amount was finalized after deducting the costs of cultivation, ensuring that the demand was not overly burdensome.

The Zabti system offered several advantages. For the state, it ensured a predictable and stable income, reducing the uncertainty associated with revenue collection. By establishing a fixed demand, it minimized corruption and arbitrary exactions by local officials, as assessments were based on objective criteria rather than discretion. For peasants, the system provided clarity and security; they knew their obligations in advance and were protected from sudden demands during poor harvests. This fairness fostered agricultural productivity and economic stability, as cultivators were encouraged to expand farming knowing their surplus would not be arbitrarily confiscated.

Moreover, the system strengthened central control over the empire’s resources. By replacing revenue farmers (ijaradars) with direct state administration, Akbar reduced the power of intermediaries and ensured that revenue flowed efficiently to the imperial treasury. The Zabti system was implemented primarily in the core regions of the empire, such as Gujarat, Bengal, and the Gangetic plains, where land and productivity could be accurately measured.

Despite its innovations, the Zabti system faced practical challenges. Its success depended on a highly efficient bureaucracy capable of detailed surveys and honest administration. In regions with inadequate administrative infrastructure, the system was difficult to implement. Additionally, the reliance on cash payments required a monetized economy, which was not uniformly present across the empire. Poor harvests or price fluctuations sometimes made it hard for peasants to meet cash demands, leading to indebtedness or abandonment of land. Furthermore, the system was less effective in areas with irregular rainfall or rugged terrain, where land assessment was complex.

The Zabti system remains a landmark in the history of Indian land revenue administration. It exemplified Akbar’s pragmatic and rational approach to governance, blending empirical assessment with concern for peasant welfare. Its principles influenced subsequent revenue systems, including those adopted by later Indian rulers and even the British East India Company. While not universally applied, it set a standard for efficiency and fairness, contributing to the Mughal Empire’s economic prosperity during Akbar’s reign. The system underscores the importance of effective fiscal management in sustaining imperial power and stabilizing agrarian societies.

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📜 Pre-Mughal Foundations: The Sultanate Legacy

On the eve of Mughal rule in the early 16th century, Persian was already deeply entrenched as the language of administration, high culture, and elite discourse across much of North India. This was primarily the legacy of the Delhi Sultanate (1206–1526), which had established Persian as the official chancery language, replacing Sanskrit in many royal courts. The patronage of Sultanate rulers, particularly the Lodis and the rulers of regional kingdoms like Bengal, Jaunpur, and Malwa, fostered a vibrant literary culture. Sufi saints and poets played a crucial role in popularizing Persian through their mystical writings, making it a lingua franca for spiritual and intellectual exchange beyond courtly circles.

✍️ Literary Flourishing and Syncretic Influences

The period witnessed a remarkable synthesis of indigenous Indian and Persian literary traditions. Amir Khusrau (1253–1325), the prolific poet and scholar of the Delhi Sultanate, exemplified this fusion. He innovatively blended Persian meters with Indian themes, imagery, and vocabulary, creating a distinct Indo-Persian style that would influence generations. Historiography also flourished, with works like Ziauddin Barani’s Tarikh-i-Firuz Shahi offering detailed chronicles of Sultanate rule. This rich literary environment provided a ready-made cultural and administrative framework that the Mughals would later inherit and elevate to unprecedented heights.

🏛️ Regional Centers and Scholarly Networks

Beyond Delhi, regional courts became important hubs for Persian learning. The Sharqi dynasty in Jaunpur, for instance, was renowned as a center of Persian scholarship and calligraphy. The influx of poets, artists, and scholars from Persia and Central Asia, particularly following Timur’s invasion and the subsequent political instability, further enriched the Indian Persian literary landscape. These networks ensured that when Babur established the Mughal Empire in 1526, he encountered a sophisticated and already mature Indo-Persian literary culture, which his descendants would enthusiastically patronize, leading to its golden age.

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Akbar, the third Mughal emperor (r. 1556–1605), transformed the Mughal Empire from a regional North Indian power into a vast, pan-Indian empire through relentless military campaigns, strategic alliances, and effective administrative integration. His reign marked the most significant phase of Mughal territorial expansion, driven by a combination of force, diplomacy, and inclusive policies.

Akbar’s expansion began with the consolidation of core territories. Following his victory at the Second Battle of Panipat (1556) against Hemu, he secured Delhi and Agra. He then turned to eliminating rival powers in the Ganges plain. By 1561, he subjugated the Afghans of Rewa and captured the formidable fort of Gwalior. The conquest of Malwa (1561) and Gondwana (1564) further extended his control over central India.

The subjugation of Rajputana was a critical strategic and diplomatic achievement. While he defeated resistant rulers like the Rana of Mewar (Siege of Chittorgarh, 1567–68), he also secured alliances through marriage and granted autonomy to cooperative Rajput chiefs, integrating them into his military and administrative framework. This policy provided the Mughals with a loyal and formidable military base.

Akbar then expanded westward and eastward. Gujarat, a wealthy commercial region, was annexed in 1572–73, giving the empire access to Arabian Sea ports. This was followed by campaigns in Bihar and Bengal, completed by 1576, which brought the fertile Gangetic delta under Mughal control and secured crucial revenue resources.

His final major acquisitions were in the north and northwest. The conquest of Kabul (1585) and Kashmir (1586) secured the empire’s frontiers, while the annexation of Sindh (1591) and Baluchistan (1595) strengthened its western flank. By the end of his reign, the empire stretched from the Himalayas in the north to the Godavari River in the south, and from the Hindu Kush in the west to the Brahmaputra River in the east.

Akbar’s success lay not just in conquest but in his ability to integrate diverse regions into a centralized administration using the mansabdari system and a pragmatic policy of religious and cultural accommodation. This created a stable, multi-ethnic empire that formed the foundation for later Mughal prosperity.

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🏘️ Administrative and Social Structure

Villages in the medieval Deccan (c. 6th to 17th centuries) were largely self-sufficient socio-economic units with a well-defined administrative hierarchy. The village headman, known as the Patil or Reddy, was the central figure responsible for revenue collection, maintaining order, and representing the village to higher authorities. The Kulkarni, often a Brahmin, served as the record-keeper and accountant, maintaining detailed documents on landholdings, crop yields, and taxes. This dual leadership ensured a balance of executive and bureaucratic functions. Socially, villages were organized along caste lines, with specific quarters (wadas) for different communities. Artisan and service castes like potters, blacksmiths, weavers, and barbers provided essential goods and services through the balutedari or ayagar system, receiving a fixed share of the village harvest (baluta) as payment, which reinforced economic interdependence and stability.

🌾 Economic Organization and Land Tenure

The economy was predominantly agrarian, relying on sophisticated irrigation systems including tanks (cheruvu), canals, and wells to mitigate the region’s semi-arid climate. Land tenure systems varied: mirasi rights denoted hereditary ownership with tax obligations, while inam lands were tax-free grants awarded to Brahmins, temples, or military servicemen for their contributions. The ryotwari system, later formalized under British rule, had precursors in the Deccan, where individual cultivators (ryots) held land directly from the state and paid revenue based on assessment. Villages also had common lands (gairan) for grazing and forests, which provided resources like timber, fuel, and medicinal plants, supporting the community’s diverse needs.

🛡️ Autonomy and External Relations

Despite being part of larger kingdoms like the Chalukyas, Bahmanis, or Vijayanagara, villages enjoyed significant autonomy in local governance. The gram sabha (village assembly) resolved disputes, managed temple affairs, and oversaw community projects. This self-governance was bolst by geographic isolation and the feudal structure of Deccani polities, where intermediaries (deshmukhs, desais) collected revenue but rarely interfered in village affairs. However, villages were vulnerable to military conflicts between rival kingdoms, which could lead to raids, forced levies, and displacement. Their resilience was rooted in their organizational cohesion and economic self-sufficiency, which allowed them to function as stable, enduring units amidst broader political changes.

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Akhlaq literature is a genre of Islamic ethical writing that focuses on moral philosophy, personal conduct, and statecraft. Rooted in Greco-Islamic philosophy, Sufism, and Persian wisdom traditions, these texts provide guidance on cultivating virtues like justice, wisdom, courage, and temperance for both individual perfection and social harmony.

Prominent examples include Nasir al-Din Tusi’s Akhlaq-i Nasiri and Abu’l-Fazl’s Akhlaq-i Jahangiri. These works address diverse audiences—from rulers to common citizens—and cover topics such as governance, household management, and self-discipline. They emphasize the importance of a balanced character, rational ethics, and the role of the philosopher-king in ensuring a just society.

In South Asia, Akhlaq texts were integral to Mughal political culture, influencing emperors like Akbar and Jahangir. They blended Islamic principles with local and Persianate ideas, promoting ideals of sulh-i kul (universal peace) and ethical governance. This literature not only shaped state policies but also defined educational curricula, leaving a lasting legacy on Indo-Islamic intellectual and moral traditions.

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📜 Assam Buranjis: Historical Chronicles

The Buranjis are a distinctive class of historical chronicles from Assam, primarily composed in the Ahom language and later in Assamese. These texts originated during the Ahom kingdom (1228–1826) and served as official records of the state, documenting political, social, economic, and cultural events with remarkable detail and chronological precision.

The term Buranji derives from the Ahom word Bru (to know) and Ji (record), literally meaning "a storehouse of knowledge." They were meticulously maintained by official scribes (Buranji-owais) under royal patronage, following strict methodologies to ensure accuracy. The content ranges from dynastic histories and administrative reports to accounts of wars, diplomatic relations, and ethnographic descriptions of tribes.

These chronicles are invaluable sources for reconstructing the history of medieval Assam and Northeast India. They offer indigenous perspectives often absent in external sources, highlighting the region’s complex interactions with Mughal forces, neighboring kingdoms, and tribal communities. Beyond factual records, Buranjis also incorporate cultural narratives, including folklore and administrative wisdom.

Their systematic approach to historiography makes them unique in South Asia, reflecting a sophisticated tradition of archival documentation. Today, they remain essential for understanding Ahom governance, socio-political evolution, and the resilience of Assamese identity.

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The term "Second Afghan Empire" refers to the Durrani Empire, founded in 1747 by Ahmad Shah Durrani (also known as Ahmad Shah Abdali). Emerging after the decline of the Persian Afsharid and Mughal powers, it marked the rise of Afghanistan as a significant political and military force in the region.

Ahmad Shah unified the Pashtun tribes and established a centralized state with its capital at Kandahar, later moved to Kabul. The empire expanded rapidly through military campaigns, at its height encompassing modern-day Afghanistan, Pakistan, northeastern Iran, and northwestern India. Notably, Ahmad Shah invaded India multiple times, defeating the Marathas decisively at the Third Battle of Panipat in 1761, which curtailed Maratha expansion and secured Afghan dominance.

The empire was characterized by a tribal confederacy structure, relying on the loyalty of Pashtun chiefs and the strength of a mobile cavalry army. However, its vastness and ethnic diversity made it difficult to govern centrally. After Ahmad Shah’s death in 1772, the empire gradually fragmented due to succession disputes and internal rebellions, leading to its eventual decline by the early 19th century. The Durrani Empire laid the foundation for the modern state of Afghanistan and left a lasting legacy in South Asian history.

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🏛️ Concept of the Segmentary State

The segmentary state is a model in political anthropology and history, primarily associated with the work of Aidan Southall, who developed it through his study of the Alur people in Africa. It describes a type of pre-modern polity where political power is decentralized and authority is exercised through a pyramid of segmented units—from the village to the capital. The key feature is that the ruler’s control diminishes with distance from the center.

In a segmentary state, the core area is under the direct administrative and ritual control of the king, who holds symbolic sovereignty. However, outlying regions are only loosely integrated through kinship, ritual allegiance, or tribute, rather than through bureaucratic or military coercion. Local leaders in peripheral areas retain significant autonomy, mimicking the structure of the central authority but operating independently in practice. The state’s unity is maintained more through ideological and ritual suzerainty than through continuous political or administrative intervention.

This model has been applied to analyze medieval Indian kingdoms, such as the Cholas, where the king’s power was ritually supreme but segmentary in practice, with local chiefs wielding substantial autonomy. It challenges traditional Eurocentric views of the state by highlighting alternative forms of political organization.

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Zamindari rights refer to a land revenue system prevalent in pre-colonial and colonial India, where zamindars (landholders) acted as intermediaries between the state and the cultivators. Traditionally, zamindars were responsible for collecting land revenue from peasants and submitting a fixed portion to the ruling authority, whether Mughal or regional kingdoms. In return, they retained a share of the revenue and exercised significant administrative and judicial control over their estates.

Under the Mughals, zamindars held hereditary rights but were not absolute owners; their status depended on fulfilling revenue demands and maintaining order. The British East India Company transformed this system through the Permanent Settlement of 1793 in Bengal, Bihar, and Odisha. This policy designated zamindars as legal owners of land, fixed revenue demands in perpetuity, and made them proprietors rather than state agents. While this secured colonial revenue streams, it often led to exploitative practices, as zamindars increased rents on tenants to maximize profits.

Zamindari rights thus encapsulated both economic privilege and social authority, reinforcing feudal hierarchies. The system was abolished in independent India through land reforms aimed at redistributing land to tillers and eliminating intermediary rent-seeking.