MGPE-011 Solved Assignment
Question:-1
South Asia has been a region of multiple types of political violence. Comment with examples from any one country of the region.
Answer: 1. Introduction to Political Violence in South Asia
South Asia has historically been a region marked by various forms of political violence, including insurgencies, terrorism, ethnic and religious conflicts, and political assassinations. This violence stems from a combination of historical legacies, colonial boundaries, ethnic divisions, religious polarization, and socio-economic inequalities. The region’s political violence not only threatens national stability but also has significant implications for regional peace and security. Among the countries in South Asia, Sri Lanka serves as a notable example, having experienced a prolonged and devastating civil war driven by ethnic tensions and political violence.
2. Ethnic Conflict and the Civil War in Sri Lanka
Sri Lanka provides a powerful case study of political violence, primarily characterized by its ethnic conflict between the Sinhalese majority and the Tamil minority. The Sri Lankan Civil War, which lasted from 1983 to 2009, was one of the longest and most brutal conflicts in South Asia, leading to widespread devastation and loss of life. The war was rooted in political, ethnic, and economic grievances between the Tamil minority and the Sinhalese-majority government.
The primary cause of the conflict was the demand for an independent Tamil state in the northern and eastern regions of Sri Lanka. The Liberation Tigers of Tamil Eelam (LTTE) emerged as a militant organization advocating for Tamil self-determination, engaging in guerrilla warfare and acts of terrorism against the Sri Lankan government. The LTTE used tactics such as suicide bombings, targeted assassinations, and attacks on military and civilian targets. In response, the Sri Lankan government launched military campaigns to suppress the insurgency, leading to widespread human rights violations, including extrajudicial killings, disappearances, and displacement of civilians.
The conflict escalated due to the marginalization of Tamils in politics and economic life, exacerbated by discriminatory policies such as the Sinhala Only Act (1956), which made Sinhala the sole official language, further alienating the Tamil population. Ethnic violence, including riots and pogroms such as Black July in 1983, fueled the grievances of the Tamil community and intensified the violence.
3. Political Assassinations and Targeted Killings
One of the key characteristics of political violence in Sri Lanka was the use of assassinations as a tool by the LTTE and other factions to eliminate political opponents. The LTTE’s strategy included the targeted killing of high-profile figures who opposed their cause or were seen as obstacles to their objectives. The most prominent assassination was that of Rajiv Gandhi, the former Prime Minister of India, in 1991. Gandhi was killed by a suicide bomber associated with the LTTE in retaliation for India’s involvement in the Sri Lankan civil war, particularly through the Indian Peace Keeping Force (IPKF), which was deployed in Sri Lanka from 1987 to 1990.
Similarly, the LTTE assassinated Sri Lankan President Ranasinghe Premadasa in 1993, further destabilizing the political landscape in the country. These high-profile assassinations were intended to send a strong message to both domestic and international actors while weakening the political leadership in Sri Lanka and India. Political assassinations, coupled with the LTTE’s broader campaign of terror, contributed to a climate of fear and instability that impeded peace efforts.
4. Religious and Ethnic Polarization
Religious and ethnic tensions have also been a significant source of political violence in Sri Lanka. The majority Sinhalese population is predominantly Buddhist, while the Tamil minority is primarily Hindu, with a sizable Muslim population. These ethnic and religious divisions became deeply politicized, contributing to communal violence and further inflaming tensions between communities.
For instance, during the civil war, the LTTE also targeted the Muslim minority in the northern and eastern regions, expelling thousands of Muslims from these areas and attacking Muslim villages. The 1990 massacre at the Kattankudy Mosque, where LTTE militants killed over 140 Muslims, is a stark example of how political violence was exacerbated by ethnic and religious divisions. These tensions created an additional layer of conflict, as Muslims and Tamils, both marginalized communities, became embroiled in their own violent confrontations.
5. Counterinsurgency and State Violence
The Sri Lankan government’s response to the LTTE insurgency involved large-scale military operations and counterinsurgency tactics that often resulted in heavy civilian casualties and widespread displacement. The Sri Lankan military was accused of committing war crimes, particularly during the final stages of the civil war in 2009, when it launched a massive offensive to defeat the LTTE. The Mullivaikkal massacre, in which thousands of Tamil civilians were killed during the final days of the conflict, remains one of the most contentious issues in post-war Sri Lanka.
The government’s approach to suppressing the LTTE involved the establishment of military zones, mass arrests, and the use of extrajudicial measures, contributing to widespread fear and resentment among the Tamil population. This state violence further fueled the insurgency and prolonged the conflict, as the grievances of the Tamil population were not adequately addressed.
6. Post-War Sri Lanka and Continued Tensions
Although the civil war officially ended in 2009 with the military defeat of the LTTE, the legacy of political violence continues to shape Sri Lankan society. Post-war Sri Lanka has seen continued ethnic tensions, especially as the Tamil community remains marginalized in the political and economic spheres. The government’s reluctance to pursue meaningful reconciliation, address war crimes, or offer political autonomy to the Tamil regions has kept underlying tensions alive.
Moreover, sporadic violence, particularly against religious minorities such as Muslims, has continued. The 2019 Easter bombings, carried out by Islamist extremists, highlighted how new forms of political violence could emerge in a post-conflict society still grappling with unresolved grievances and social divisions.
Conclusion
Sri Lanka’s experience with political violence exemplifies the complexity of conflict in South Asia, where ethnic, religious, and political divisions intersect to create long-term instability. The Sri Lankan Civil War illustrates how marginalized communities, when faced with state violence, political exclusion, and discrimination, can resort to insurgency and terrorism, leading to protracted and devastating conflict. While Sri Lanka has emerged from civil war, the continued ethnic and religious polarization, combined with the legacy of violence, poses challenges to achieving lasting peace and reconciliation. This case highlights the importance of addressing the root causes of conflict through inclusive governance, social justice, and meaningful dialogue.
Question:-2
Terrorism is an asymmetrical form of political violence. Explain.
Answer: 1. Introduction to Terrorism as Political Violence
Terrorism is a form of political violence that seeks to achieve specific ideological, political, or religious goals by using violence or the threat of violence to instill fear and coerce governments, societies, or individuals. It often targets civilians or non-combatants and aims to disrupt normal life to draw attention to the terrorist group’s cause. What sets terrorism apart from conventional forms of warfare or political violence is its asymmetrical nature, meaning that the terrorist group is usually much weaker than the state or establishment it is challenging. The asymmetry lies in the resources, power, and tactics used by terrorists to confront stronger, often state-backed, forces.
Terrorism’s asymmetrical nature makes it an unconventional form of conflict, where the weaker party employs indirect and unpredictable tactics to exploit the vulnerabilities of the stronger side. By leveraging fear, uncertainty, and surprise, terrorist organizations seek to shift the power dynamic in their favor, despite their limited means.
2. Understanding Asymmetry in Terrorism
Asymmetrical warfare refers to conflicts where the opposing sides have unequal military strength, resources, or strategies. In terrorism, this disparity is evident in the fact that terrorist groups are often small, decentralized, and lack the formal military or economic resources of the governments they oppose. However, they compensate for this weakness by using unconventional tactics, including surprise attacks, suicide bombings, cyberattacks, and guerrilla warfare, to destabilize governments and intimidate societies.
Unlike traditional armies, which engage in open confrontation, terrorist groups operate covertly, blending into civilian populations and striking unexpectedly. Their asymmetrical nature also means they exploit the psychological dimension of conflict by targeting civilians to create widespread fear, undermine public confidence in the state’s ability to protect its citizens, and disrupt societal norms.
For example, groups like Al-Qaeda and ISIS have engaged in global terrorism using limited resources but maximized their impact through suicide bombings, media propaganda, and the use of technology. They have utilized their weaknesses as a strategic advantage, hiding in plain sight while spreading fear and chaos through relatively inexpensive but devastating attacks.
3. Terrorism’s Asymmetrical Tactics
Terrorist groups rely on a range of asymmetrical tactics to challenge more powerful states or organizations. These include:
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Guerrilla Warfare and Hit-and-Run Attacks: Terrorist groups often use guerrilla tactics to strike military or civilian targets and then disappear into the local population. These hit-and-run attacks create a sense of unpredictability and make it difficult for conventional military forces to respond effectively.
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Suicide Attacks: Suicide bombings are a hallmark of modern terrorism. These attacks allow terrorists to penetrate otherwise secure areas and inflict significant damage. Suicide attacks are particularly effective in asymmetrical conflicts because they require few resources but can cause widespread casualties and destruction.
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Use of Technology and Media: Terrorist organizations effectively use modern technology to amplify their impact. This includes cyberterrorism, online radicalization, and propaganda. Groups such as ISIS have used social media to recruit members globally and spread their message of violence, while cyberattacks on critical infrastructure have disrupted governments and economies.
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Targeting Civilians: One of the key features of asymmetrical warfare in terrorism is the deliberate targeting of civilians. By focusing on non-combatants, terrorists seek to maximize psychological impact, spreading fear and insecurity. This tactic also undermines the state’s legitimacy by suggesting that it cannot protect its own citizens.
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Symbolic Attacks: Terrorist attacks are often symbolic, targeting locations or institutions that hold significant political, economic, or cultural value. For example, the 9/11 attacks on the World Trade Center and the Pentagon were designed to strike at symbols of U.S. economic and military power, thereby making a global statement.
4. Objectives of Asymmetrical Terrorism
The asymmetrical nature of terrorism is driven by specific political objectives, which include:
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Challenging State Power: Terrorist groups use violence to undermine the authority and legitimacy of the state. By destabilizing governments and creating fear, they seek to weaken the state’s ability to govern effectively.
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Gaining Attention for Their Cause: Terrorist groups often resort to violence to draw attention to their political, religious, or ideological agendas. In asymmetrical conflicts, where they may not have the resources to engage in prolonged warfare, terrorism allows them to achieve visibility on the global stage.
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Provoking Overreaction: One of the strategic aims of terrorism is to provoke an overreaction from the state, such as crackdowns on civil liberties, military interventions, or indiscriminate reprisals. Such responses can lead to further alienation of the population and inadvertently boost the terrorists’ cause by increasing sympathy for their grievances.
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Radicalizing and Recruiting: Asymmetrical terrorism often aims to radicalize individuals and recruit new members by portraying the state as oppressive and unjust. The perceived power imbalance and the image of a small, determined group fighting against a powerful state can attract sympathizers to the terrorist cause.
5. Asymmetry in the Global War on Terror
The global war on terror provides a clear example of how terrorism operates as an asymmetrical form of political violence. Terrorist groups like Al-Qaeda and ISIS have taken on powerful states, including the United States and its allies, by exploiting their relative weakness through unconventional tactics.
Despite the military superiority of the U.S. and its coalition partners, these terrorist groups have been able to carry out significant attacks across the globe. The September 11, 2001, attacks highlighted the devastating potential of asymmetrical terrorism, as a relatively small, well-organized group of terrorists inflicted massive damage on a global superpower.
The U.S. response to terrorism, including military interventions in Afghanistan and Iraq, further demonstrated the complexities of fighting asymmetrical threats. Despite superior military capabilities, the U.S. faced challenges in combating non-state actors who operated through decentralized networks, used local support, and relied on guerrilla warfare.
6. Challenges in Addressing Asymmetrical Terrorism
Addressing asymmetrical terrorism poses significant challenges for governments and international organizations. Conventional military strategies are often ineffective in dealing with decentralized, non-state actors who rely on guerrilla tactics. In addition, counterterrorism efforts must navigate the complex political and social contexts in which terrorist groups operate.
Governments must balance the need for security with the protection of civil liberties, as harsh measures can lead to further radicalization and recruitment by terrorist groups. Moreover, addressing the root causes of terrorism, such as political oppression, economic inequality, and social marginalization, is essential to reducing the appeal of terrorist organizations.
Conclusion
Terrorism is an inherently asymmetrical form of political violence, characterized by the use of unconventional tactics by weaker groups to challenge more powerful states or institutions. By exploiting fear, unpredictability, and the vulnerabilities of civilian populations, terrorist organizations are able to exert significant influence despite their limited resources. This asymmetry complicates efforts to combat terrorism, as traditional military responses often fail to address the underlying causes of conflict and can exacerbate tensions. Addressing terrorism requires a nuanced approach that combines security measures with efforts to resolve the political, social, and economic grievances that fuel extremism.
Question:-3
What are the positive and negative implications of external interventions with regard to the environmental, food and economic security?
Answer: 1. Introduction to External Interventions and Their Implications
External interventions refer to the involvement of international actors, such as foreign governments, international organizations, or multinational corporations, in addressing issues related to environmental, food, and economic security in a country. These interventions can take various forms, including financial aid, technical assistance, policy advice, or direct involvement in development projects. While external interventions can bring much-needed resources and expertise to address pressing challenges, they can also have unintended consequences. In the context of environmental, food, and economic security, such interventions can have both positive and negative implications, affecting local communities, ecosystems, and economies in different ways.
2. Positive Implications of External Interventions
External interventions can provide critical support to countries facing environmental degradation, food insecurity, and economic challenges. Some of the positive implications include:
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Technological and Financial Assistance for Environmental Protection: External interventions often bring advanced technology and funding that can help developing countries combat environmental issues such as deforestation, water pollution, and climate change. International organizations, such as the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP), support projects focused on renewable energy, conservation, and sustainable land use. For example, external funding for reforestation initiatives and clean energy projects can significantly contribute to a country’s ability to address environmental degradation and reduce greenhouse gas emissions.
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Improved Food Security Through Agricultural Modernization: External interventions can play a key role in improving food security by introducing modern agricultural techniques, high-yield crop varieties, and better irrigation systems. International organizations, such as the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO), work with countries to enhance food production and reduce hunger. External assistance in building agricultural infrastructure, such as storage facilities and irrigation systems, helps improve food distribution and reduce food wastage, thereby strengthening food security.
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Economic Growth and Poverty Reduction: External financial aid and investment can stimulate economic growth, particularly in developing countries. Foreign direct investment (FDI), loans from international financial institutions like the World Bank, and development aid can support critical infrastructure projects, such as transportation, telecommunications, and energy. These investments create jobs, boost local industries, and improve overall economic security. Furthermore, interventions that promote trade and open markets can provide developing nations with access to global markets, fostering economic development and reducing poverty.
3. Negative Implications of External Interventions
Despite the potential benefits, external interventions can also have negative consequences, particularly when they are not well-planned or fail to take into account local contexts. Some of the key negative implications include:
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Environmental Degradation and Resource Exploitation: While external interventions may bring technology and funding for environmental protection, they can also lead to environmental degradation, particularly when foreign companies exploit natural resources without proper oversight. In some cases, external investments in extractive industries, such as mining, logging, and oil drilling, have led to deforestation, pollution, and the destruction of ecosystems. These activities can deplete natural resources, harm biodiversity, and contribute to long-term environmental damage.
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Disruption of Local Food Systems and Dependence on Imports: External interventions aimed at improving food security can sometimes undermine local food systems. For example, the introduction of high-yield crop varieties or genetically modified organisms (GMOs) may benefit large-scale farmers but can marginalize small-scale farmers who rely on traditional farming practices. Additionally, reliance on external food aid or imports can lead to dependency, reducing the resilience of local food systems. In some cases, foreign agricultural practices may not be suited to local ecosystems, resulting in soil degradation or water depletion.
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Economic Vulnerability and Debt Dependency: While external financial assistance can promote economic growth, it can also lead to economic dependency and vulnerability. Loans from international financial institutions often come with conditions, such as austerity measures, that can harm local economies and reduce government spending on essential services. Moreover, excessive borrowing can lead to a cycle of debt dependency, where countries are forced to prioritize debt repayment over domestic development. In some cases, foreign investments and trade agreements can benefit multinational corporations more than local industries, exacerbating economic inequality and reducing local economic security.
4. Balancing the Benefits and Risks of External Interventions
To maximize the positive impacts and minimize the negative consequences of external interventions in environmental, food, and economic security, a balanced approach is needed. This approach should include:
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Promoting Sustainable Development: External interventions should be guided by principles of sustainability, ensuring that economic growth and development do not come at the expense of environmental degradation or resource depletion. International actors should prioritize green technologies, renewable energy, and conservation efforts that align with local ecosystems and long-term environmental goals.
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Supporting Local Food Systems and Agriculture: While external interventions can improve food security through modernization, they should also support traditional and local agricultural practices that enhance biodiversity and resilience. Investments in small-scale farming, agroecology, and community-based food systems can empower local farmers and reduce dependence on imports or external aid. Additionally, interventions should focus on improving local infrastructure, such as irrigation and storage, to enhance food production and distribution.
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Ensuring Economic Autonomy and Equity: External financial assistance should be designed to promote economic autonomy and reduce dependency. This involves providing grants and low-interest loans without imposing harmful conditions, as well as fostering local industries and businesses through fair trade practices. Investments should prioritize job creation, skills development, and equitable economic growth to ensure that the benefits of external interventions are shared by all sectors of society.
Conclusion
External interventions in the areas of environmental, food, and economic security can have both positive and negative implications. While they can provide vital resources, technology, and financial assistance to address pressing challenges, they can also lead to environmental degradation, disruption of local food systems, and economic dependency. A balanced approach to external interventions, guided by sustainability, support for local systems, and economic equity, is essential to ensuring that these interventions promote long-term security and resilience in the countries they aim to assist. By working in partnership with local communities and prioritizing their needs, external actors can contribute to more sustainable and inclusive development.
Question:-4
Elucidate the goals and objectives set in the United Nations Millennium Report (2002) on human security.
Answer: 1. Introduction to the United Nations Millennium Report (2002)
The United Nations Millennium Report (2002) titled "We the Peoples: The Role of the United Nations in the 21st Century" was a landmark document that outlined a broad framework for addressing global challenges, particularly in the context of human security. Authored by then UN Secretary-General Kofi Annan, the report emphasized the importance of shifting from traditional concepts of security, primarily focused on military threats, to a more comprehensive understanding that includes human security. Human security, as defined in the report, focuses on protecting individuals from chronic threats like poverty, hunger, and disease, and addressing sudden disruptions in their lives due to conflict, natural disasters, or economic crises.
The Millennium Report set the stage for the adoption of the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) and laid out a series of objectives aimed at fostering peace, development, and human well-being in the 21st century.
2. Concept of Human Security in the Millennium Report
The report placed a strong emphasis on the concept of human security, which extends beyond the traditional understanding of state security. Human security encompasses the protection of individuals from threats such as poverty, hunger, human rights violations, and environmental degradation. The report argued that security should be people-centered and aimed at ensuring that individuals can live in dignity, free from fear and want.
According to the Millennium Report, human security involves:
- Freedom from Fear: Protecting individuals from violence, conflict, and threats to personal safety.
- Freedom from Want: Ensuring that people have access to basic needs such as food, clean water, healthcare, and education.
- Human Dignity: Respecting human rights and promoting social justice, equality, and political participation.
The report stressed that human security should be the foundation of global peace and stability, recognizing that insecurity in one part of the world can have global repercussions.
3. Goals of the Millennium Report on Human Security
The Millennium Report outlined several key goals aimed at enhancing human security and addressing the critical challenges of the 21st century:
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Eradication of Extreme Poverty and Hunger: One of the primary goals of the report was to reduce extreme poverty and hunger, which were identified as major threats to human security. The report emphasized the need for international cooperation in providing resources and technical support to developing countries to achieve this goal.
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Promotion of Universal Education: The report called for the promotion of universal primary education as a means to empower individuals and reduce inequalities. Education was recognized as a fundamental building block for economic development, political participation, and social inclusion.
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Gender Equality and Women’s Empowerment: Recognizing the critical role of women in promoting peace and development, the report highlighted gender equality as a central objective. It called for initiatives to empower women, ensure their participation in decision-making processes, and protect their rights in all areas of life.
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Reduction of Child Mortality and Improvement of Maternal Health: The report stressed the importance of reducing child mortality and improving maternal health as essential components of human security. It called for increased access to healthcare, particularly in developing countries, to ensure that women and children could lead healthy and productive lives.
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Combating HIV/AIDS, Malaria, and Other Diseases: The report identified the global health crisis posed by diseases like HIV/AIDS, malaria, and tuberculosis as a significant threat to human security. It called for global cooperation to combat these diseases, particularly in vulnerable populations in developing countries, through increased funding for research, healthcare, and prevention programs.
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Ensuring Environmental Sustainability: Environmental degradation was recognized as a key threat to human security, with its impacts felt most acutely by the world’s poor. The report called for measures to ensure environmental sustainability, including efforts to combat climate change, protect biodiversity, and promote sustainable use of natural resources.
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Global Partnership for Development: The Millennium Report called for a renewed commitment to global partnership in addressing these challenges. It emphasized the importance of international cooperation, trade, aid, and investment in promoting development and ensuring that the benefits of globalization are shared equitably.
4. Objectives Set in the Millennium Report
To achieve the broad goals outlined above, the Millennium Report proposed several specific objectives:
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Reducing Inequalities: The report called for policies that reduce inequalities between and within nations, recognizing that economic disparities contribute to insecurity and instability. It advocated for fair trade practices, debt relief for developing countries, and increased development assistance to help countries build self-reliant economies.
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Strengthening the Role of the United Nations: The report highlighted the importance of strengthening the role of the United Nations as a global institution capable of addressing transnational threats to human security. It called for reforms within the UN system to enhance its effectiveness in conflict prevention, peacekeeping, and development work.
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Conflict Prevention and Resolution: The report underscored the importance of preventing conflicts and resolving them peacefully. It advocated for early warning systems, diplomatic interventions, and efforts to address the root causes of conflict, such as political exclusion and economic inequality.
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Protecting Human Rights: The protection of human rights was a central objective in the Millennium Report. It emphasized the need for stronger international mechanisms to monitor and protect human rights globally, particularly in regions experiencing conflict or political repression.
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Promoting Global Public Goods: The report introduced the concept of global public goods, emphasizing that issues such as peace, security, environmental sustainability, and public health require collective international action. It called for the global community to provide adequate resources for the provision of these public goods.
5. The Role of Development in Human Security
The Millennium Report recognized that sustainable development is integral to human security. The report emphasized that development efforts must address both the economic and social dimensions of insecurity. It proposed a framework for development that focuses on:
- Economic growth that benefits all segments of society, particularly the poor.
- Inclusive political systems that promote participation, accountability, and good governance.
- Social protection systems that safeguard vulnerable populations from economic shocks and provide access to essential services.
By linking development to security, the report advocated for a comprehensive approach to improving the well-being of individuals and communities worldwide.
Conclusion
The United Nations Millennium Report (2002) set forth a comprehensive vision for addressing global challenges through the lens of human security. By focusing on poverty eradication, education, health, environmental sustainability, and global partnerships, the report outlined an ambitious agenda aimed at creating a world where people can live free from fear and want. Its emphasis on reducing inequalities, protecting human rights, and promoting sustainable development has shaped international efforts in the 21st century, laying the groundwork for the adoption of the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) and later the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs). The report’s call for a collective global response to shared challenges continues to resonate in international policy discussions today.
Question:-5
Describe the various initiatives of the Government of India in providing Integrated Child Development Services?
Answer: 1. Introduction to Integrated Child Development Services (ICDS)
The Integrated Child Development Services (ICDS) scheme is one of the most significant initiatives launched by the Government of India to address the health, nutrition, and educational needs of children under six years of age, as well as pregnant and lactating mothers. Launched in 1975, ICDS aims to provide a comprehensive package of services to promote early childhood development, improve maternal health, and combat malnutrition. The program is centrally sponsored but implemented through state governments, with services delivered through a network of Anganwadi Centers (AWCs) at the grassroots level.
ICDS is recognized as a cornerstone of India’s efforts to meet the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs), particularly those related to child health, education, and gender equality. The program has evolved over the years to address emerging challenges and has been supported by several complementary government initiatives aimed at enhancing its effectiveness.
2. Objectives of the ICDS Scheme
The key objectives of the ICDS scheme are:
- Improve the nutritional and health status of children in the age group of 0-6 years.
- Reduce infant mortality, child mortality, and malnutrition.
- Lay the foundation for proper psychological, physical, and social development of children.
- Enhance the capacity of mothers to look after their children’s nutritional and health needs through education and awareness.
- Provide early childhood care and preschool education for children aged 3-6 years.
The program adopts a multi-sectoral approach that integrates health, nutrition, and education to address the holistic development of children.
3. Components of ICDS
The ICDS scheme provides six core services, which are delivered through Anganwadi Centers:
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Supplementary Nutrition: Aimed at combating malnutrition and micronutrient deficiencies, ICDS provides supplementary nutrition to children under six years, as well as to pregnant and lactating mothers. The food provided is locally prepared and enriched with essential nutrients to meet the dietary requirements of growing children.
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Immunization: In collaboration with the National Health Mission (NHM), ICDS supports immunization efforts by coordinating with health departments to ensure that children and mothers receive vaccines against preventable diseases such as polio, diphtheria, and measles.
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Health Check-ups: Regular health check-ups are conducted for children, pregnant women, and nursing mothers. These check-ups include growth monitoring, immunization follow-ups, and the provision of iron and folic acid tablets to prevent anemia.
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Referral Services: For children and mothers who require specialized medical attention, the ICDS scheme provides referral services to health facilities. Anganwadi workers identify malnourished or sick children and ensure they receive timely care from healthcare professionals.
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Pre-school Non-formal Education: The ICDS scheme includes non-formal pre-school education for children aged 3-6 years, aiming to promote early childhood education and cognitive development. The curriculum is designed to be playful and interactive, laying the foundation for school readiness.
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Nutrition and Health Education: ICDS conducts awareness programs for mothers and caregivers on issues related to nutrition, health, hygiene, and family planning. This component empowers mothers with knowledge and skills to ensure better childcare practices.
4. Key Government Initiatives to Strengthen ICDS
Several government initiatives have been introduced to strengthen the ICDS scheme and address its challenges, including coverage gaps, infrastructure limitations, and quality of service delivery.
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National Nutrition Mission (POSHAN Abhiyaan): Launched in 2018, the POSHAN Abhiyaan (Prime Minister’s Overarching Scheme for Holistic Nutrition) aims to reduce malnutrition in children, pregnant women, and lactating mothers by addressing stunting, undernutrition, anemia, and low birth weight. The mission emphasizes convergence across various departments and the use of technology for real-time monitoring of nutrition programs, including ICDS. It also focuses on capacity building for Anganwadi workers and improving service delivery through the use of mobile apps.
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Saksham Anganwadi and Poshan 2.0: Launched in 2021, this initiative aims to modernize Anganwadi Centers and strengthen the ICDS system by merging several nutrition-related programs. It focuses on improving the infrastructure of AWCs, enhancing the quality of supplementary nutrition, and promoting the use of locally sourced food. The program also aims to address malnutrition among vulnerable groups, including tribal populations, through targeted interventions.
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Integrated Child Protection Scheme (ICPS): While not directly part of ICDS, the ICPS complements the child development goals of ICDS by addressing issues of child protection. It provides support for the rehabilitation and reintegration of children in need of care and protection, linking with Anganwadi Centers for holistic child welfare.
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Jan Andolan for Poshan: As part of POSHAN Abhiyaan, the government launched the Jan Andolan campaign to create a people’s movement around nutrition. This initiative focuses on increasing community participation, raising awareness about malnutrition, and promoting better nutrition practices through social and behavioral change communication.
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Anganwadi Services Scheme: Under the Ministry of Women and Child Development, the Anganwadi Services Scheme (an extension of ICDS) focuses on improving infrastructure, providing training to Anganwadi workers, and promoting better coordination between health and education departments. This initiative also aims to digitalize the tracking and reporting of child nutrition data to enhance the monitoring of service delivery.
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Early Childhood Care and Education (ECCE) Framework: In collaboration with the Ministry of Education, the ECCE framework aims to ensure quality pre-school education in Anganwadi Centers. This initiative aligns the curriculum with the National Education Policy (NEP) and focuses on developing age-appropriate learning material for young children to enhance cognitive and emotional development.
5. Challenges and the Way Forward
While the ICDS scheme and its complementary initiatives have made significant strides in improving child development outcomes, several challenges remain. These include issues of underfunding, inadequate infrastructure at Anganwadi Centers, poor training for Anganwadi workers, and gaps in service delivery in remote and tribal areas. Additionally, malnutrition remains a persistent problem, particularly in states with high poverty rates.
To address these challenges, the government has been focusing on increasing investment in ICDS, improving the accountability and efficiency of Anganwadi workers through training, and enhancing coordination between various departments involved in child development. Technology-driven initiatives like real-time monitoring systems and community engagement through campaigns like Jan Andolan are expected to improve the overall effectiveness of the ICDS program.
Conclusion
The Integrated Child Development Services (ICDS) scheme is a vital component of India’s social safety net, addressing the health, nutrition, and educational needs of children and mothers. Through initiatives such as POSHAN Abhiyaan, Saksham Anganwadi, and the ECCE framework, the government has strengthened ICDS to tackle malnutrition, promote early childhood education, and empower communities. However, continued efforts are needed to overcome persistent challenges and ensure that all children in India receive the care, nutrition, and education they deserve for a healthy and productive future.
Question:-6(a)
Poverty eradication in India
Answer: Poverty Eradication in India
Poverty eradication has been a central focus of India’s development agenda since independence. Over the years, the government has implemented numerous programs aimed at improving the economic well-being of its citizens, reducing inequality, and ensuring access to basic services such as education, healthcare, and employment. Despite significant progress, poverty remains a challenge, particularly in rural areas and among marginalized communities.
Key Government Initiatives:
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Mahatma Gandhi National Rural Employment Guarantee Act (MGNREGA): Launched in 2005, MGNREGA provides at least 100 days of guaranteed wage employment to rural households. It is one of the world’s largest social safety net programs aimed at addressing rural poverty by providing job opportunities and infrastructure development.
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Pradhan Mantri Awas Yojana (PMAY): This initiative focuses on providing affordable housing to the urban and rural poor, ensuring that every family has access to a proper dwelling. The scheme aims to address housing shortages and improve the living conditions of low-income households.
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National Food Security Act (NFSA): Introduced in 2013, this program ensures access to subsidized food grains for approximately two-thirds of India’s population, particularly targeting the poor. It aims to alleviate hunger and malnutrition, ensuring food security for vulnerable groups.
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Pradhan Mantri Jan Dhan Yojana (PMJDY): Launched in 2014, PMJDY is a financial inclusion program aimed at providing every household with access to banking services. By promoting savings, insurance, and credit, the scheme helps improve the economic stability of low-income households.
Challenges: Despite the success of these programs, challenges such as regional disparities, unemployment, and social exclusion continue to hinder poverty eradication efforts. Rural poverty, especially among Scheduled Castes (SCs), Scheduled Tribes (STs), and women, remains persistent, highlighting the need for more targeted and inclusive interventions.
Conclusion: While India has made significant strides in reducing poverty, continued efforts to address structural inequalities, improve social protection, and promote inclusive growth are essential to achieving complete poverty eradication.
Question:-6(b)
Food security and its significance
Answer: Food Security and Its Significance
Food security is defined as the condition when all people, at all times, have physical, social, and economic access to sufficient, safe, and nutritious food that meets their dietary needs for a healthy and active life. It is a fundamental aspect of human well-being and a critical component of global development and stability.
Dimensions of Food Security:
- Availability: Ensuring that there is enough food produced and available to meet the needs of the population. This includes sustainable agricultural practices, efficient food distribution systems, and minimizing food losses during production and transportation.
- Accessibility: Ensuring that people can afford and physically access the food they need. This is often influenced by income levels, food prices, and access to markets.
- Utilization: This refers to the proper nutritional use of food, requiring a balanced diet, clean water, and healthcare to enable individuals to absorb and use nutrients efficiently.
- Stability: Ensuring that access to food is consistent over time, without fluctuations due to economic, environmental, or social factors such as natural disasters, conflicts, or market instability.
Significance of Food Security:
- Poverty Reduction: Food security is directly linked to poverty reduction, as malnutrition and hunger can limit people’s productivity, learning, and earning potential. Ensuring food security improves economic outcomes and helps break the cycle of poverty.
- Health and Nutrition: Adequate access to nutritious food is essential for maintaining good health, reducing infant mortality, and combating diseases related to malnutrition, such as stunting and anemia.
- Social Stability: Food insecurity can lead to social unrest, political instability, and conflict. Ensuring food security can promote peace and stability by addressing one of the root causes of social tensions.
- Sustainable Development: Food security is a key element in achieving the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs), particularly the goals related to ending hunger (SDG 2), improving health (SDG 3), and promoting sustainable agriculture (SDG 12).
Conclusion: Ensuring food security is vital for fostering a healthy, productive society and achieving broader development goals. It requires coordinated efforts across agriculture, health, and economic policies to create a sustainable and equitable food system.
Question:-7(a)
Marginalisation of women in India
Answer: Marginalisation of Women in India
The marginalisation of women in India refers to the systematic exclusion of women from social, economic, political, and cultural opportunities, which hinders their ability to fully participate in society. Despite constitutional guarantees of equality and numerous legislative measures to promote women’s rights, Indian women continue to face discrimination and marginalisation in various spheres of life.
Economic Marginalisation: Women in India face significant economic disadvantages. The gender wage gap persists, with women often earning less than men for similar work. Women’s participation in the labor force is low compared to men, with many working in informal sectors with poor pay and no social security benefits. Additionally, cultural norms and domestic responsibilities restrict women’s access to education and employment opportunities, further exacerbating economic marginalisation.
Educational Disparities: While literacy rates for women have improved over the years, a gap remains compared to men. Girls, especially in rural areas, face barriers to education, including early marriage, poverty, and cultural expectations of prioritizing boys’ education. This lack of education severely limits women’s opportunities for personal and professional development, contributing to their ongoing marginalisation.
Political Exclusion: Women remain underrepresented in political decision-making roles in India. Despite the 73rd and 74th Constitutional Amendments that reserve one-third of seats for women in local governance (Panchayati Raj), their representation in higher political offices, such as state assemblies and the national parliament, remains low. This limits their influence in policy-making and perpetuates the cycle of marginalisation.
Social and Cultural Marginalisation: Deep-rooted patriarchal norms and traditions continue to marginalise women in Indian society. Issues such as dowry, domestic violence, early marriage, and gender-based violence disproportionately affect women, particularly those from marginalized communities like Dalits, Adivasis, and religious minorities. These practices limit women’s autonomy and reinforce their subordinate status.
Conclusion: Despite legal frameworks and government efforts to promote gender equality, the marginalisation of women in India remains a significant issue. Addressing this requires not only policy interventions but also cultural and social shifts to empower women, ensure equal opportunities, and dismantle patriarchal structures.
Question:-7(b)
International Cooperation: Issues and challenges
Answer: International Cooperation: Issues and Challenges
International cooperation refers to the collaboration between countries to address common global challenges, such as climate change, economic development, security, public health, and human rights. While international cooperation is essential for peace, stability, and progress, it faces several issues and challenges that complicate its effectiveness.
Key Issues and Challenges:
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Sovereignty vs. Cooperation: One of the major challenges in international cooperation is the tension between national sovereignty and collective action. Countries are often hesitant to cede control over their domestic policies or to allow international bodies to interfere in their affairs, which can limit the scope and effectiveness of global cooperation efforts. This tension is evident in issues such as climate change, where national interests sometimes conflict with global environmental goals.
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Economic Inequality: The significant disparity between developed and developing nations poses a challenge to international cooperation. Wealthier nations often have more influence in international organizations and negotiations, which can result in unequal agreements that do not fully address the concerns of less powerful nations. For example, developing countries often argue that they bear the brunt of climate change while contributing the least to it and call for greater financial support from developed nations.
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Geopolitical Conflicts: Geopolitical rivalries and conflicts can hinder cooperation, especially when countries prioritize their strategic interests over global goals. Issues like territorial disputes, military alliances, and regional tensions can obstruct collective action on pressing global challenges. For instance, ongoing tensions between global powers can affect efforts to collaborate on nuclear disarmament, counter-terrorism, or pandemic response.
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Multilateralism vs. Unilateralism: The rise of unilateralism and the rejection of multilateral agreements by some countries pose a significant challenge to international cooperation. Some nations prefer to act independently, disregarding international institutions like the United Nations, the World Health Organization (WHO), or the World Trade Organization (WTO), which undermines collective efforts to address global issues.
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Global Governance and Institutional Limitations: International organizations often face bureaucratic inefficiencies, lack of enforcement mechanisms, and limited resources, which hinder their ability to implement agreements or respond to crises effectively. The slow decision-making processes and limited authority of these organizations can delay timely responses to global challenges.
Conclusion: While international cooperation is essential for addressing global issues, challenges such as sovereignty, economic inequality, geopolitical conflicts, unilateralism, and institutional limitations make it difficult to achieve. Strengthening multilateral frameworks, enhancing global governance, and promoting inclusive negotiations are essential for overcoming these barriers and fostering effective international collaboration.
Question:-8(a)
Gandhian vision of Human Security at Global Level
Answer: Gandhian Vision of Human Security at the Global Level
Mahatma Gandhi’s vision of human security transcended traditional notions of national security, which primarily focus on military strength and state sovereignty. Instead, his concept of security was deeply rooted in the well-being of individuals and communities, emphasizing non-violence (ahimsa), justice, and the holistic development of all people. At the global level, Gandhi’s vision of human security prioritized the dignity, freedom, and basic needs of individuals, reflecting a comprehensive approach to peace and security.
Non-Violence and Peace: Gandhi believed that true security could only be achieved through non-violence. He argued that violence, whether physical, economic, or structural, creates insecurity and division. At the global level, his vision promotes conflict resolution through peaceful means such as dialogue, negotiation, and diplomacy rather than war or coercion. Gandhi’s principle of ahimsa suggests that global peace must be based on mutual respect, understanding, and cooperation, rather than dominance or exploitation.
Economic Justice and Self-Reliance: Gandhi’s vision of human security also emphasized economic justice. He believed that poverty and inequality were among the greatest threats to security. At the global level, Gandhi advocated for economic systems that are just, equitable, and focused on meeting the needs of all individuals, not just a select few. His idea of Swadeshi (self-reliance) called for sustainable development and the reduction of dependency on exploitative economic practices. For Gandhi, human security required addressing global inequalities, ensuring fair trade, and promoting the equitable distribution of resources.
Environmental Sustainability: Gandhi was also an early advocate of environmental sustainability, recognizing the interconnectedness of humans and nature. He believed that exploitation of natural resources leads to environmental degradation and insecurity. His vision calls for responsible stewardship of the Earth’s resources, a principle that aligns with modern global efforts to address climate change and protect ecosystems.
Universal Human Rights and Dignity: For Gandhi, human security was inseparable from the protection of human rights and dignity. He believed that every individual, regardless of nationality, race, or religion, deserved respect and equal opportunity. His vision supports the global promotion of human rights, social justice, and the eradication of discrimination.
Conclusion: Gandhi’s vision of human security at the global level focuses on non-violence, economic justice, environmental sustainability, and human dignity. It calls for a world where security is defined not by military power, but by the well-being and harmony of all individuals and communities. This vision remains relevant today in addressing global challenges such as poverty, inequality, conflict, and environmental degradation.
Question:-8(b)
The 1993 Vienna Declaration and Programme of Action
Answer: The 1993 Vienna Declaration and Programme of Action
The 1993 Vienna Declaration and Programme of Action is a landmark document in the history of human rights, adopted by consensus at the World Conference on Human Rights held in Vienna, Austria. The declaration reaffirmed the universal and indivisible nature of human rights, recognizing that all human rights—whether civil, political, economic, social, or cultural—are equally important and interdependent. It represents a significant global commitment to the promotion and protection of human rights for all individuals, irrespective of their race, religion, gender, or nationality.
Key Principles of the Vienna Declaration:
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Universality of Human Rights: The Vienna Declaration emphasized that the promotion and protection of human rights is a legitimate concern of the international community and should not be subordinated to the political, economic, or cultural differences of states. This reinforced the notion that human rights are universal and inalienable, applying equally to all people, everywhere.
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Equality and Non-Discrimination: The declaration reaffirmed the principles of equality and non-discrimination, calling for the protection of vulnerable groups such as women, children, minorities, indigenous peoples, and refugees. It stressed the need to eliminate discrimination in all forms and promote gender equality, particularly in areas of education, employment, and decision-making.
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Interdependence of Rights: One of the critical contributions of the Vienna Declaration was its emphasis on the interdependence and indivisibility of all human rights. It highlighted that civil and political rights cannot be separated from economic, social, and cultural rights. Both sets of rights are essential for human dignity and must be treated with equal priority.
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Human Rights Education: The document also called for the strengthening of human rights education to raise awareness and understanding of human rights globally. It recognized education as a critical tool for fostering tolerance, equality, and respect for human dignity.
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Establishment of the Office of the UN High Commissioner for Human Rights: The Vienna Declaration led to the creation of the Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights (OHCHR) in 1993, aimed at strengthening the UN’s ability to promote and protect human rights around the world.
Conclusion: The 1993 Vienna Declaration and Programme of Action remains a foundational document in global human rights efforts. It has played a crucial role in shaping the modern human rights framework and ensuring that the international community remains committed to the universal promotion and protection of human dignity and rights.
Question:-9(a)
National Food Security Act
Answer: National Food Security Act (NFSA), 2013
The National Food Security Act (NFSA), 2013 is a landmark legislation enacted by the Government of India to provide subsidized food grains to approximately two-thirds of the population, ensuring food security and reducing hunger across the country. The Act marks a shift in the right to food from a welfare-based approach to a rights-based one, legally entitling people to access sufficient and nutritious food.
Key Features of the NFSA:
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Coverage and Beneficiaries: The NFSA aims to cover up to 75% of the rural population and 50% of the urban population under the Public Distribution System (PDS). It identifies beneficiaries under two categories: priority households and Antyodaya Anna Yojana (AAY) households, which consist of the poorest of the poor.
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Entitlements: Under the Act, eligible households are entitled to receive 5 kg of food grains per person per month at highly subsidized prices: ₹3 per kg for rice, ₹2 per kg for wheat, and ₹1 per kg for coarse grains. AAY households, who are the most vulnerable, are entitled to 35 kg of food grains per month at the same subsidized rates.
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Targeted Public Distribution System (TPDS): The Act strengthens the existing TPDS by ensuring that food grains are provided to the entitled beneficiaries in a timely and transparent manner. It includes provisions for transparency and accountability in the distribution process, such as the use of technology (e.g., Aadhar-enabled systems) to prevent leakages and corruption.
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Nutritional Support for Vulnerable Groups: The Act also provides special entitlements for pregnant women, lactating mothers, and children up to 14 years of age. Pregnant women and lactating mothers are entitled to free meals during pregnancy and six months after childbirth, along with a maternity benefit of ₹6,000. Children up to 14 years are entitled to nutritious meals through the Integrated Child Development Services (ICDS) and mid-day meal schemes in schools.
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Grievance Redressal Mechanism: The NFSA establishes grievance redressal mechanisms at the state and district levels to ensure accountability and resolve complaints related to the implementation of the Act.
Conclusion: The National Food Security Act, 2013, is a significant step toward achieving food security and reducing malnutrition in India. By providing legal entitlements to food, the NFSA aims to ensure that every citizen has access to affordable, nutritious food, thus contributing to the nation’s overall health and well-being. However, challenges remain in ensuring effective implementation and reaching the most vulnerable populations.
Question:-9(b)
Gandhian precepts for international cooperation
Answer: Gandhian Precepts for International Cooperation
Mahatma Gandhi’s philosophy of international cooperation is grounded in his core principles of ahimsa (non-violence), satya (truth), and Sarvodaya (the welfare of all). His vision of global cooperation advocates for a peaceful, just, and equitable world, where nations work together not out of political expediency or economic gain but based on mutual respect, moral values, and the well-being of humanity. Gandhi’s ideas offer a moral framework for international relations that transcends power politics and economic exploitation.
Non-Violence as the Basis for Cooperation: Gandhi believed that non-violence, or ahimsa, should guide relations between nations. He was strongly opposed to war, military aggression, and colonialism, advocating instead for peaceful negotiation, dialogue, and mutual understanding as the foundations of international diplomacy. For Gandhi, conflict resolution should always occur through non-violent means, emphasizing that sustainable peace can only be achieved when nations refrain from violence and instead focus on building trust and cooperation.
Respect for Sovereignty and Self-Determination: A key aspect of Gandhi’s vision for international cooperation was his emphasis on respect for national sovereignty and the right of all nations to self-determination. He was a firm supporter of decolonization, arguing that true cooperation among nations could only be built on the foundation of mutual respect for each country’s independence and right to govern itself. Gandhi’s principles advocated against imperialism, dominance, and the subjugation of one nation by another.
Economic Justice and Self-Reliance: Gandhi’s concept of Swadeshi (self-reliance) plays an important role in his approach to international cooperation. He envisioned a world where nations support each other in achieving economic independence and reducing inequalities. Gandhi believed in fair trade, equitable economic policies, and the promotion of local economies. He was critical of exploitative international economic practices and sought a cooperative global economy that empowers all nations, especially the poor and marginalized.
Global Brotherhood and Ethical Leadership: Gandhi emphasized that international relations should be guided by the principles of truth, morality, and justice. He advocated for ethical leadership, where global cooperation is driven by the common good, not narrow national interests. For Gandhi, a sense of global brotherhood and shared responsibility for addressing global challenges—such as poverty, inequality, and environmental degradation—was essential.
Conclusion: Gandhian precepts for international cooperation call for a non-violent, just, and equitable approach to global relations, rooted in respect for sovereignty, economic fairness, and moral leadership. His principles remain relevant today, offering a framework for peaceful and ethical international engagement in an interconnected world.
Question:-10(a)
Human trafficking, gender and environmental issues
Answer: Human Trafficking, Gender, and Environmental Issues
Human trafficking, gender inequality, and environmental issues are deeply interconnected global challenges that collectively undermine human rights, social justice, and sustainability. These issues impact millions of vulnerable people worldwide, particularly women and marginalized groups, and their consequences are often exacerbated by environmental degradation and climate change.
Human Trafficking: Human trafficking involves the exploitation of individuals through force, fraud, or coercion for purposes such as forced labor, sexual exploitation, and organ trafficking. Women and children are disproportionately affected by trafficking, especially in industries like domestic work, agriculture, and the sex trade. Trafficking is often fueled by poverty, lack of education, and economic inequality, which leave people vulnerable to exploitation.
Gender and Human Trafficking: Gender plays a critical role in human trafficking, as women and girls are more likely to be trafficked due to gender-based discrimination, social norms, and limited access to education and employment opportunities. Gender inequality exacerbates vulnerability, as trafficked women are often subjected to sexual exploitation and forced labor in conditions that violate their basic rights. In addition, cultural factors and systemic discrimination prevent many women from seeking justice or escaping these situations.
Environmental Issues and Human Trafficking: Environmental degradation, such as deforestation, desertification, and climate change, contributes to human trafficking by displacing vulnerable populations. Communities affected by natural disasters, loss of livelihoods, and shrinking resources are more susceptible to trafficking as people migrate in search of work and security. Traffickers often prey on those displaced by environmental crises, exploiting their desperation and lack of options.
Climate Change and Gender: Women are disproportionately affected by climate change due to their roles in agriculture, water collection, and caretaking, particularly in rural and low-income communities. Environmental degradation exacerbates existing gender inequalities, limiting women’s access to resources, education, and economic opportunities. Additionally, climate change-induced displacement increases women’s vulnerability to trafficking and exploitation.
Conclusion: The nexus of human trafficking, gender inequality, and environmental issues presents a multifaceted global challenge. Addressing these problems requires comprehensive efforts to promote gender equality, combat trafficking, and protect the environment, as each issue contributes to the vulnerability and exploitation of marginalized populations, especially women. Sustainable development, gender-sensitive policies, and environmental protection are essential to addressing these interrelated crises.
Question:-10(b)
Problems of urban unorganised labour
Answer: Problems of Urban Unorganised Labour
Urban unorganised labour refers to workers who are employed in informal sectors without formal contracts or legal protections. These workers constitute a significant portion of the workforce in many developing countries, including India. While they contribute to the economy through their work in sectors such as construction, domestic help, street vending, and small-scale industries, they face numerous challenges that impact their livelihoods and well-being.
Lack of Job Security: One of the most pressing issues for urban unorganised labour is the absence of job security. These workers are often employed on a temporary or casual basis without formal contracts, making them vulnerable to sudden job loss. Without any formal legal recognition, they do not receive severance pay or unemployment benefits if they lose their jobs.
Poor Wages and Exploitation: Unorganised workers frequently earn very low wages, often below the minimum wage mandated by the government. They are susceptible to exploitation by employers who may not adhere to labour laws, paying them irregularly or withholding their wages. Additionally, women in this sector often face even greater wage discrimination compared to their male counterparts.
Lack of Social Security: Unlike their counterparts in the formal sector, unorganised workers lack access to social security benefits such as health insurance, pensions, or maternity benefits. This leaves them unprotected in the event of illness, injury, or old age, forcing them to rely on personal savings or informal support networks during emergencies.
Unsafe Working Conditions: Many unorganised workers are employed in hazardous or unhealthy environments, particularly in industries like construction and waste management. These workers are exposed to risks such as accidents, exposure to harmful substances, and unsafe machinery, with little to no access to safety equipment or health benefits.
Limited Access to Legal Recourse: Unorganised workers typically lack awareness of their legal rights or access to mechanisms that could provide protection and redress. Even when labour laws exist to protect these workers, enforcement is often weak, and they are unable to demand fair treatment.
Conclusion: Urban unorganised labour faces significant challenges, including poor wages, job insecurity, unsafe working conditions, and lack of social protection. Addressing these issues requires strengthening labour laws, improving access to social security, and promoting awareness of workers’ rights to ensure a more equitable and just labour market.
